From a memory bug to a shell — and the mitigations that stop it
The deepest layer of offense: reverse a binary with Ghidra and gdb, smash the stack to hijack a return address (ret2win), defeat NX with ret2libc, and chain gadgets into a full ROP exploit — each paired with the mitigation (NX, ASLR, stack canaries, PIE, CFI) and the memory-safety lesson that ends the bug class.